APUSH Period 7 (1890-1945) Study Guide
Period 7 (1890-1945) encompasses significant shifts – industrial growth, progressive reforms, global conflicts, and economic upheaval. Understanding key concepts is vital for success!
7.1: The Gilded Age & Progressive Era – Economic & Social Changes
The late 19th and early 20th centuries, known as the Gilded Age and Progressive Era, witnessed dramatic economic and social transformations in the United States. Rapid industrialization fueled unprecedented economic growth, driven by innovations in technology and manufacturing techniques. This expansion created new opportunities but also significant instability, leading to calls for reform.
The rise of big business and monopolies, exemplified by figures like Rockefeller and Carnegie, concentrated wealth and power in the hands of a few. This sparked concerns about unfair practices and the exploitation of workers. Simultaneously, a burgeoning labor movement emerged, advocating for better wages, working conditions, and the right to organize – facing considerable challenges from both businesses and government.
Socially, this period saw increased immigration, urbanization, and widening gaps between the rich and poor. These changes prompted reformers to address issues like poverty, corruption, and inequality, laying the groundwork for the Progressive Era’s focus on social justice and government intervention.
7;1.1: Industrialization & Economic Growth
The period following the Civil War saw an explosion of industrialization, fundamentally reshaping the American economy. New technologies, such as the Bessemer process for steel production and the widespread adoption of electricity, dramatically increased efficiency and output. Railroad expansion facilitated the transportation of goods and resources across vast distances, connecting markets and fueling further growth.
This economic boom was driven by factors like abundant natural resources, a growing labor force (fueled by immigration), and supportive government policies – though often laissez-faire. Industries like steel, oil, and railroads became dominant, attracting significant investment and creating immense fortunes for entrepreneurs.
However, this growth wasn’t without its downsides. It led to increased urbanization, overcrowded cities, and challenging working conditions. The concentration of wealth also created significant economic disparities, contributing to social unrest and calls for reform. Despite these issues, industrialization laid the foundation for America’s emergence as a global economic power.
7.1;2: Rise of Big Business & Monopolies
The late 19th century witnessed the dramatic rise of “big business” and the consolidation of economic power into the hands of a few industrialists. Figures like John D. Rockefeller (oil), Andrew Carnegie (steel), and J.P. Morgan (finance) built vast empires, often employing ruthless tactics to eliminate competition.
Monopolies and trusts emerged as dominant business structures, allowing companies to control entire industries and dictate prices. Vertical integration – controlling all aspects of production, from raw materials to distribution – and horizontal integration – acquiring competitors – were key strategies. These practices, while increasing efficiency, stifled competition and harmed consumers.
Defenders of these practices championed Social Darwinism, arguing that success was a natural result of superior ability. However, growing public concern over the power of monopolies led to calls for government intervention; The Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890 was a first attempt to curb monopolistic practices, though its initial enforcement proved weak.
7.1.3: Labor Movement & Challenges
Rapid industrialization created a large working class facing harsh conditions: long hours, low wages, unsafe environments, and little job security. This spurred the growth of the labor movement, aiming to improve workers’ lives through collective bargaining.
Early attempts at organization included the Knights of Labor, advocating for broad social reforms, and the American Federation of Labor (AFL), focusing on practical goals like higher wages and shorter hours for skilled workers. Labor disputes often turned violent, as seen in the Great Railroad Strike of 1877, the Haymarket Affair (1886), and the Homestead Strike (1892).
Workers faced significant challenges: corporate resistance, public hostility (often fueled by anti-immigrant sentiment), and government intervention on the side of business. The courts frequently sided with employers, issuing injunctions to halt strikes. Despite setbacks, the labor movement laid the groundwork for future reforms and a stronger voice for workers in American society.
7.2: The Progressive Era – Political & Social Reforms
The Progressive Era (roughly 1890-1920) was a period of widespread social activism and political reform across the United States. Progressives aimed to address problems caused by industrialization, urbanization, immigration, and political corruption. They believed in the power of government to regulate in the public interest and improve society.
Key reforms included efforts to curb the power of big business through antitrust legislation, protect consumers with food and drug regulations (like the Pure Food and Drug Act), and improve working conditions. Political reforms sought to increase citizen participation through initiatives, referendums, and recalls – giving voters more direct control over legislation and government officials.
The era also saw significant social reforms, including the temperance movement (culminating in Prohibition) and the women’s suffrage movement, which ultimately achieved its goal with the passage of the 19th Amendment. Progressives weren’t unified in their goals, but shared a commitment to addressing societal problems and improving the lives of ordinary Americans.
7.2.1: Muckrakers & Investigative Journalism
“Muckrakers” were investigative journalists who exposed corruption and social problems during the Progressive Era. Inspired by Theodore Roosevelt, who used the term derisively, these writers played a crucial role in raising public awareness and fueling calls for reform. They weren’t afraid to delve into the dark underbelly of American society, revealing harsh realities previously hidden from view.
Notable muckrakers included Upton Sinclair, whose novel The Jungle exposed unsanitary conditions in the meatpacking industry, leading to the passage of the Meat Inspection Act and the Pure Food and Drug Act. Ida Tarbell investigated the Standard Oil Company, revealing its monopolistic practices and contributing to its eventual breakup.
Other prominent muckrakers tackled issues like political corruption, child labor, and urban poverty. Their articles and books, often published in popular magazines, shocked the public and galvanized support for progressive reforms. Muckrakers demonstrated the power of journalism to effect social and political change, shaping public opinion and influencing policy decisions.
7.2.2: Political Reforms – Initiative, Referendum, Recall
The Progressive Era witnessed significant political reforms designed to increase citizen participation and curb the power of corrupt political machines. Three key mechanisms emerged: the initiative, the referendum, and the recall. These tools aimed to restore power to the people and make government more responsive to their needs.
The initiative allowed citizens to propose laws directly, bypassing the state legislature. By gathering enough signatures on a petition, voters could place a proposed law on the ballot for a public vote. The referendum enabled citizens to approve or reject laws already passed by the legislature, providing a check on their power.
Perhaps the most radical reform was the recall, which allowed voters to remove elected officials from office before their term expired, again through a petition process and subsequent vote. These reforms, initially adopted in states like Oregon and California, spread across the country, empowering citizens and challenging traditional political structures.
7.2.3: Women’s Suffrage & the 19th Amendment
The fight for women’s suffrage was a decades-long struggle, gaining momentum during the Progressive Era. Activists like Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton spearheaded the movement, arguing that women deserved the same rights as men, including the right to vote. Early strategies focused on state-level campaigns, achieving limited success in states like Wyoming and Colorado.
The National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) employed various tactics, including lobbying, petitioning, and public demonstrations. A more radical approach emerged with the National Woman’s Party (NWP), led by Alice Paul, who utilized picketing and civil disobedience to pressure President Woodrow Wilson and Congress.
World War I proved pivotal. Women’s contributions to the war effort highlighted their patriotism and capabilities, bolstering the suffrage cause. Finally, in 1920, the 19th Amendment was ratified, granting women the right to vote nationwide – a landmark achievement in the fight for gender equality and a testament to decades of tireless activism.
7.3: American Imperialism & Foreign Policy
By the late 19th century, the United States began to pursue a more assertive foreign policy, embracing American Imperialism. Motivations were multifaceted: economic desires for new markets and resources, a belief in cultural and racial superiority (Social Darwinism), and a desire to compete with European powers. The closing of the frontier fueled the idea of expanding influence overseas.
The Spanish-American War (1898) marked a turning point. Triggered by events in Cuba, the war resulted in the U.S. acquiring territories like Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. This victory demonstrated America’s growing military power and signaled its emergence as a global player.
U.S. involvement in Asia increased significantly. The Philippines faced a brutal suppression of its independence movement after being annexed by the U.S; In China, the U.S. advocated for the “Open Door Policy” to ensure equal access to trade. Relations with Japan also evolved, marked by both cooperation and growing tensions as Japan’s own imperial ambitions expanded.
7.3.1: Motivations for Imperialism (Economic, Political, Social)
Several key factors drove American Imperialism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Economically, the U.S. sought new markets for its growing industrial production and access to raw materials unavailable domestically. Expansion promised relief from overproduction and economic instability.
Politically, a desire for international prestige and strategic advantages fueled imperial ambitions. Competition with European powers – particularly Britain, France, and Germany – motivated the U.S. to establish a stronger global presence and assert its influence. Alfred Thayer Mahan’s theories on naval power further emphasized the importance of overseas bases.
Socially, beliefs in American exceptionalism and a sense of racial and cultural superiority played a significant role. Many Americans believed they had a duty to “civilize” other nations, often justified by pseudoscientific racial theories; The closing of the Western frontier also contributed to a belief in a national destiny to expand beyond U.S. borders.
7.3.2: Spanish-American War & its Consequences
The Spanish-American War of 1898 marked a turning point in U.S. foreign policy, propelling the nation onto the world stage. Triggered by Cuban independence struggles and the mysterious sinking of the USS Maine in Havana harbor, the war was relatively short but impactful.
A decisive American victory resulted in the acquisition of several former Spanish territories, including Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. The U.S. also gained control of Cuba, though it remained nominally independent. This expansion dramatically increased American involvement in Asia and the Caribbean.
However, the acquisition of these territories sparked significant debate. Anti-imperialists argued against annexation, citing principles of self-determination and concerns about extending U.S. governance over foreign populations. The suppression of the Philippine insurrection, a nationalist movement seeking independence, proved particularly controversial and highlighted the complexities of American imperialism.
7.3.3: U.S. Involvement in Asia (Philippines, China, Japan)
Following the Spanish-American War, the U.S. found itself deeply involved in Asian affairs. The annexation of the Philippines proved contentious, leading to a brutal and protracted conflict as Filipino nationalists fought for independence against American rule. This war exposed the contradictions between American ideals of liberty and the reality of colonial control.
In China, the U.S. pursued an “Open Door Policy,” advocating for equal trading rights for all nations and resisting European attempts to carve out spheres of influence. This policy aimed to protect American commercial interests and prevent any single power from dominating the Chinese market.
Relations with Japan evolved from cooperation to competition. Initially, the U.S. supported Japan’s modernization, but growing Japanese expansionism in Asia, particularly its ambitions in Manchuria, created tensions. While avoiding direct conflict during this period, the seeds of future rivalry were sown, ultimately contributing to the events leading up to World War II.
7.4: World War I & its Aftermath
Initially maintaining a policy of neutrality, the U.S. eventually entered World War I in 1917, spurred by German unrestricted submarine warfare, the Zimmerman Telegram, and economic ties to the Allied powers. American involvement proved decisive, bolstering the Allied effort and contributing to the defeat of the Central Powers.
The Home Front experienced significant changes during the war. The government mobilized resources through agencies like the War Industries Board, and propaganda campaigns encouraged public support. Women entered the workforce in unprecedented numbers, filling jobs vacated by men serving in the military. Civil liberties were curtailed with the passage of the Espionage and Sedition Acts.
The Treaty of Versailles and President Wilson’s vision for a League of Nations sparked intense debate. While Wilson championed the League as a means to prevent future wars, the Senate ultimately rejected the treaty, fearing entanglement in European conflicts and a loss of American sovereignty. This rejection signaled a return to isolationist tendencies.
7.4.1: Causes of U.S. Entry into WWI
The United States initially adopted a policy of neutrality when World War I erupted in 1914, reflecting a long-standing tradition of avoiding European entanglements. However, several factors gradually eroded this neutrality, pushing the nation towards intervention. A key catalyst was Germany’s policy of unrestricted submarine warfare, which threatened American shipping and lives.
The sinking of the Lusitania in 1915, with American passengers aboard, ignited public outrage and increased pressure on President Wilson to take action. Further inflaming tensions was the Zimmerman Telegram, a secret communication intercepted in 1917, revealing a German proposal to Mexico to ally against the U.S. in exchange for regaining lost territories.
Strong economic ties with the Allied powers, particularly Britain and France, also played a significant role. American banks had extended substantial loans to these nations, creating a vested interest in their victory. Ultimately, these combined factors – unrestricted submarine warfare, the Zimmerman Telegram, and economic interests – led President Wilson to ask Congress for a declaration of war in April 1917.
7.4.2: The Home Front During WWI
World War I profoundly transformed American society on the home front. The U.S. government mobilized resources and public opinion to support the war effort through agencies like the War Industries Board, which coordinated production, and the Committee on Public Information, which utilized propaganda to generate enthusiasm.
To finance the war, the government implemented new taxes and sold Liberty Bonds, appealing to patriotic citizens. The war also spurred significant changes in the labor force, as women and African Americans filled jobs vacated by men serving overseas, though often facing discrimination and limited opportunities.
However, the war also witnessed a rise in nativism and suppression of dissent. The Espionage Act of 1917 and the Sedition Act of 1918 curtailed freedom of speech, leading to the prosecution of individuals who criticized the government or the war effort. The Great Migration saw large numbers of African Americans move north seeking employment and escaping racial violence, contributing to growing racial tensions. These changes fundamentally reshaped American life during and after the conflict.
7.4.3: Treaty of Versailles & League of Nations Debate
President Woodrow Wilson championed the Treaty of Versailles, aiming to establish a lasting peace through his Fourteen Points, which advocated for self-determination and a “peace without victory.” However, the treaty ultimately imposed harsh terms on Germany, including territorial losses, disarmament, and substantial reparations.
The treaty’s provisions, and particularly the creation of the League of Nations – Wilson’s key initiative for collective security – sparked fierce debate in the United States. Henry Cabot Lodge, a leading Republican senator, spearheaded opposition, fearing the League would entangle the U.S. in future European conflicts and infringe upon American sovereignty.
Despite Wilson’s passionate advocacy, the Senate ultimately refused to ratify the Treaty of Versailles, and the U.S. did not join the League of Nations. This rejection reflected a resurgence of isolationist sentiment and a desire to avoid foreign entanglements. The failure to ratify the treaty had lasting consequences, weakening the League and contributing to the instability that ultimately led to World War II.
7.5: The Roaring Twenties & The Great Depression
The 1920s, dubbed the “Roaring Twenties,” witnessed dramatic cultural shifts. Jazz music flourished, particularly within the Harlem Renaissance, a blossoming of African American artistic and literary expression. Mass consumer culture emerged, fueled by new technologies like the automobile and radio, alongside a rise in celebrity worship and changing social norms.
However, beneath the surface of prosperity lay economic vulnerabilities. Speculation in the stock market soared, creating an unsustainable bubble. Agricultural overproduction and declining farm incomes plagued rural America. This precarious situation culminated in the Stock Market Crash of 1929, triggering the Great Depression.
The Depression brought widespread unemployment, poverty, and social unrest. President Herbert Hoover’s initial response was limited, emphasizing voluntary cooperation. The era exposed contradictions – a period of modernism and tolerance coexisting with increased racial discrimination and violence, like the rise in lynchings. The decade’s end marked a turning point, setting the stage for significant government intervention.
7.5.1: Cultural Changes of the 1920s (Jazz Age, Harlem Renaissance)
The 1920s represented a profound cultural transformation in the United States, often referred to as the Jazz Age. This era saw a rejection of traditional Victorian values and a surge in modernism, fueled by post-war disillusionment and economic prosperity. Jazz music, originating in African American communities, became immensely popular, symbolizing the era’s energy and rebellion.
Central to this cultural shift was the Harlem Renaissance, a vibrant explosion of African American artistic and intellectual creativity centered in Harlem, New York City. Writers like Langston Hughes and Zora Neale Hurston, alongside musicians and artists, explored themes of racial identity, Black culture, and the African American experience.
Simultaneously, the decade witnessed the rise of mass consumer culture, driven by advertising and new technologies. The “flapper” image – a young woman embracing a liberated lifestyle – challenged traditional gender roles. However, this progress existed alongside persistent social inequalities and a resurgence of nativism and racial prejudice, creating a complex and often contradictory cultural landscape.
